{"id":1543,"date":"2026-10-08T07:16:24","date_gmt":"2026-10-08T07:16:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/planetary-gear-set.top\/planetary-gear-ratio-explained-for-engineers\/"},"modified":"2026-10-08T07:16:33","modified_gmt":"2026-10-08T07:16:33","slug":"planetary-gear-ratio-explained-for-engineers","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/planetary-gear-set.top\/uk\/planetary-gear-ratio-explained-for-engineers\/","title":{"rendered":"\u041f\u043e\u044f\u0441\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0456\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0432"},"content":{"rendered":"
\n
\u0417\u043d\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0456\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0457 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447<\/div>\n

\u041f\u043e\u044f\u0441\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0456\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0432<\/h1>\n

A practical engineering guide to ratio relationships, fixed members and why tooth-count arithmetic must match the real configuration, with RFQ, inspection and application details that can be used when evaluating a new or replacement planetary transmission.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

A planetary stage is often treated as a simple collection of gears until a replacement part runs hot, becomes noisy or shifts the load onto one planet branch. This guide focuses on ratio relationships, fixed members and why tooth-count arithmetic must match the real configuration. It is written to help a buyer, design engineer or maintenance team define the problem in measurable terms before comparing suppliers. The goal is not to turn every application into the same catalogue selection, but to show which evidence changes the technical decision and which assumptions should remain open until the actual drawing or duty data is available.<\/p>\n

\u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u2014 planetary gear ratio<\/strong>. In practice, it touches tooth-count relationship, fixed ring versus fixed sun configurations, carrier speed, and usually at least one of relative angular velocity, compound stage ratios or sign convention and rotation direction. These factors are linked. A correction to one item can improve one failure mode while worsening another, which is why planetary gearing should be reviewed as a stage rather than as a single isolated tooth count.<\/p>\n

\n\"Planetary
\u0417\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0456\u0430-\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443, \u0437\u0431\u0456\u0440\u043a\u0438 \u0430\u0431\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0456\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0456\u0437\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0430\u043b\u0443 \u0437 \u0432\u0438\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043c \u043a\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c, \u0449\u043e \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0434\u0430\u0454 \u0446\u0456\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0456.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u041f\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0456\u0442\u044c \u0437\u0456 \u0448\u043b\u044f\u0445\u0443 \u0441\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0436\u043d\u044c\u043e\u0457 \u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438<\/h2>\n

A conventional planetary stage contains a central sun gear, multiple planet gears, an internal ring gear and a carrier. Torque is split across the planet branches and recombined through the carrier or another active member. That architecture makes the transmission compact, but it also means the stage reacts through several structural paths at once. When reviewing planetary gear ratio, first identify the driven member, the held member and the output member. Without that configuration, a ratio or torque statement can be misleading because the same tooth counts can produce different kinematic behavior under a different fixed-member arrangement.<\/p>\n

For ratio relationships, fixed members and why tooth-count arithmetic must match the real configuration, the load path should be traced from the input interface through every mesh and bearing support to the output and housing reaction. Record where tooth-count relationship enters the problem and how fixed ring versus fixed sun configurations changes under continuous torque, peak torque, reversal or coast-down. This makes it easier to decide whether the limiting issue is tooth stress, bearing reaction, carrier stiffness, spline fit, lubrication, thermal behavior or a combination of these. It also prevents the common procurement error of solving a visible tooth defect while leaving its root cause in the assembly.<\/p>\n

\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u043b\u044f\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0432'\u044f\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0457 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0456<\/a><\/p>\n

\u0412\u0438\u043c\u0456\u0440\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f, \u0449\u043e \u043c\u0430\u044e\u0442\u044c \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f<\/h2>\n

Useful specifications connect a requirement to a method of verification. For this topic, that means turning phrases such as \u201chigh precision,\u201d \u201cheavy duty,\u201d or \u201clow noise\u201d into drawing features, operating values and inspection evidence. Depending on the project, the important controls may include tooth-count relationship, fixed ring versus fixed sun configurations, carrier speed, relative angular velocity. The chosen controls should be tied to the functional datums of the assembly. A gear-quality value measured from an arbitrary surface is less useful than a slightly broader inspection plan referenced to the bore, spline, pin circle or other datum that actually locates the gear in service.<\/p>\n

When an old sample is the only evidence, separate original geometry from wear. Polished flanks, pitting, plastic deformation, fretted bores and damaged spline teeth can move measurements away from the intended design. Whenever possible, compare several teeth, both faces, multiple mating members and unworn reference surfaces. For planetary gear ratio, photographs of the contact pattern and the assembly orientation can be as important as a single dimensional report because they show whether the problem is distributed or localized.<\/p>\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438<\/th>\n\u0414\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0437\u0430\u0445\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f<\/th>\n\u0406\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0430<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
Tooth-Count Relationship<\/td>\nCapture the drawing requirement, measured condition or operating evidence for tooth-count relationship.<\/td>\nIt can change the acceptance decision for planetary gear ratio explained for engineers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Fixed Ring Versus Fixed Sun Configurations<\/td>\nCapture the drawing requirement, measured condition or operating evidence for fixed ring versus fixed sun configurations.<\/td>\nIt can change the acceptance decision for planetary gear ratio explained for engineers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Carrier Speed<\/td>\nCapture the drawing requirement, measured condition or operating evidence for carrier speed.<\/td>\nIt can change the acceptance decision for planetary gear ratio explained for engineers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Relative Angular Velocity<\/td>\nCapture the drawing requirement, measured condition or operating evidence for relative angular velocity.<\/td>\nIt can change the acceptance decision for planetary gear ratio explained for engineers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Compound Stage Ratios<\/td>\nCapture the drawing requirement, measured condition or operating evidence for compound stage ratios.<\/td>\nIt can change the acceptance decision for planetary gear ratio explained for engineers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n

\u042f\u043a \u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0430 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0456\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f \u0432\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0443<\/h2>\n

Planetary transmissions combine several tolerances in one compact assembly. A small change in tooth-count relationship may interact with carrier speed, while relative angular velocity can shift the contact toward one side of the face width. Manufacturing planning therefore needs a datum chain, a heat-treatment strategy and a final inspection route that are consistent with how the part functions. Hard finishing should not be specified automatically; it is used when the material, hardness, gear quality and economics justify it. The same principle applies to grinding, honing, lapping, shaping and other processes.<\/p>\n

Set-level consistency is especially important when multiple planet gears share load. If planets come from different revisions or manufacturing states, the assembly can acquire unequal backlash or load distribution even when each part appears individually acceptable. For ratio relationships, fixed members and why tooth-count arithmetic must match the real configuration, lot control and identification can therefore be part of the technical solution. This is one reason a matched set is often the lower-risk purchase when the original stage is badly worn or its maintenance history is uncertain.<\/p>\n

\n
\u041f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e<\/div>\n
Do not approve a change to tooth-count relationship or fixed ring versus fixed sun configurations in isolation. Check how the change affects mating geometry, datums, bearing reactions, lubrication and the stage-level acceptance method.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
\n\"Planetary
\u0417\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0456\u0430\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0456\u0448\u0443 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0456\u0437\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430, \u0440\u043e\u0437\u043c\u0456\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0456 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0442\u0456, \u0449\u043e\u0431 \u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0434\u043e\u0432\u0433\u0443 \u0442\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0456\u043d\u0443.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u0423\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0417\u043c\u0456\u043d\u0456\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043f\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0434\u044c<\/h2>\n

A solution that works in a steady industrial reducer may be unsuitable for a servo axis, crawler final drive, wheel hub or slewing system. Servo duty emphasizes reversing behavior, stiffness and positioning. Mobile equipment adds shock, sealing and field contamination. Slewing duty can combine high ratios with intermittent peaks and brake reactions. Continuous industrial drives make thermal capacity and oil condition more visible. The design review for planetary gear ratio should therefore name the machine, not just the gearbox.<\/p>\n

\u0412\u043a\u0430\u0436\u0456\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0456\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043d \u0432\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0457 \u0448\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0456, \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0438\u0445\u0456\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u043f\u0456\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u0431\u043e \u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442, \u043a\u0456\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0456\u0432 \u0437\u0430 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0443, \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0443 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f, \u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0438\u0439 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b, \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0432\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0448\u043d\u044c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0449\u0430, \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u043d\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f, \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043b\u043e, \u043e\u0447\u0456\u043a\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0456\u043d \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0431\u0438, \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0456 \u0442\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u044c\u043e\u0432\u0456 \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0436 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u044c-\u044f\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0437\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0456\u0448\u043d\u0456\u0439 \u0456\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0444\u0435\u0439\u0441 \u0433\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0430\u0431\u043e \u0434\u0432\u0438\u0433\u0443\u043d\u0430. \u042f\u043a\u0449\u043e \u0446\u0456 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0449\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0456, \u043f\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0442\u0435 \u0457\u0445 \u044f\u043a \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0456 \u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438, \u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0456\u043d\u044e\u0439\u0442\u0435 \u0457\u0445 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f\u043c \u0437 \u0432\u0456\u0437\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0456\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0443. \u0426\u0435 \u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0446\u0456\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0443 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0456\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0436\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043e\u044e \u0442\u0430 \u0437\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0448\u0443\u0454 \u043a\u0456\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u043e\u0431\u0456\u0442, \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0456\u0432 \u043f\u0456\u0437\u043d\u0456\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0456 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u0456 \u043f\u0440\u043e \u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0447\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f.<\/p>\n

\u041f\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0432\u043d\u044f\u0439\u0442\u0435 \u0432\u0430\u0440\u0456\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0440\u0435\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0432<\/a><\/p>\n

\u041d\u0430 \u0449\u043e \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u0443\u0432\u0430\u0433\u0443 \u043f\u0456\u0434 \u0447\u0430\u0441 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0456\u0437\u0443 \u0432\u0456\u0434\u043c\u043e\u0432<\/h2>\n

Failure evidence should be collected before parts are cleaned aggressively or discarded. For ratio relationships, fixed members and why tooth-count arithmetic must match the real configuration, look for asymmetric contact, localized pitting, scuffing, root cracks, debris indentation, fretting at interfaces, discoloration, bearing damage and looseness at pins or splines. The location of the damage relative to load direction can help separate overload from misalignment or lubrication problems. Oil samples, filter debris and vibration trends add context when they are available.<\/p>\n

\u0417\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0436\u0434\u0438 \u0454 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u043e\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043a\u0438. \u041f\u0456\u0434\u0448\u0438\u043f\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u044f\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0447\u0430\u0454 \u0436\u043e\u0440\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u043c\u0456\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f; \u0448\u0442\u0438\u0444\u0442 \u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0437\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0430 \u0437\u043c\u0456\u043d\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0441\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0430; \u043a\u043e\u0440\u043f\u0443\u0441 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u044f \u043f\u0456\u0434 \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f\u043c \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0442\u0430; \u0430\u0431\u043e \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0456 \u043e\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0438 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0434\u043e \u0432\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438 \u0446\u0456\u043b\u0456\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0456 \u0437\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f. \u0422\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043e\u0433\u043b\u044f\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0440\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0435 \u043b\u0438\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043a\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442. \u042f\u043a\u0449\u043e \u0448\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044e \u0437\u0430\u043c\u0456\u043d\u0438\u0442\u0438 \u0431\u0435\u0437 \u0443\u0441\u0443\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u0438, \u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0438\u0439\u0442\u0438 \u0437 \u043b\u0430\u0434\u0443 \u0448\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0448\u0435, \u043e\u0441\u043a\u0456\u043b\u044c\u043a\u0438 \u0457\u0457 \u043d\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0456\u044f \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0448\u0443 \u0434\u0456\u043b\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043a\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430.<\/p>\n

\u041a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043e\u043a \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0456\u0432 \u0446\u0456\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0446\u0456\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0456\u0432 \u0437 \u0446\u0456\u0454\u0457 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0438<\/h2>\n